Indian Classical music is much different to most contemporary Western music; the instrumental layout as well as the melodic and harmonic content. Indian Classical music tends to follow 4 main features. These are the drone, the melody, improvisation and rhythm.
Drone
The drone is ubiquitous amongst Indian music. Not only is it found in Indian Classical music but is often heard in folk music as well as film music. This is probably the biggest difference to contemporary Western music because there is a constant harmony produced against one main note. The drone consists of one or more notes produced by a resonating instrument and acts as a harmonic base for the melody to work on. One of its main functions is to establish the root note of a piece of music. The drone works simultaneously with the melodic instruments to establish a specific mood and maintains its presence throughout entire pieces of music.
The drone may include any number of notes from a given raga, depending on the piece of music. However, it will always include the root note in order to establish the feel of the piece. Both Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian) classical music often use the 5th as a secondary drone note as well as the primary root note if the raga allows it. This is the most reliable secondary drone note as it appears in most ragas.
Common Drone Instruments:
Tanpura - Possibly the most common Indian drone instruments. Its long strings resonate within its body. This instrument is designed specifically for the function of the drone.
Srutibox - This instrument works with bellows in order to sustain a drone. There is also an electronic equivalent that allows the user to sustain a drone without needing to operate bellows. This is commonly used in Hindustani practice sessions and is even used in Carnatic live performances.
Harmonium - Similar to the srutibox, this instrument requires bellows in order to sustain a note or chord. However this is also a keyboard instrument which means that it can provide a melody as well as a drone.
Voice - The human voice can act as a drone, although obviously cannot sustain a note without gaps to take a breath.
Srutibox - This instrument works with bellows in order to sustain a drone. There is also an electronic equivalent that allows the user to sustain a drone without needing to operate bellows. This is commonly used in Hindustani practice sessions and is even used in Carnatic live performances.
Harmonium - Similar to the srutibox, this instrument requires bellows in order to sustain a note or chord. However this is also a keyboard instrument which means that it can provide a melody as well as a drone.
Voice - The human voice can act as a drone, although obviously cannot sustain a note without gaps to take a breath.
Many instruments perform dual functions. For example the sitar, which is mainly considered to be a melodic instrument, has strings known as chikari which provide the function of the drone. They are plucked but not fretted which means that they are only used to play one note each.
A similar style of instrument found in other parts of the world is the bagpipe. Bagpipes play a melody simultaneously to a drone. The drone is produced by a reservoir of air whilst the pipes provide the melody. Although this instrument doesn't have as much influence on Western music as drone instruments do in India, it can still be compared as it uses the same idea of a constant harmony.
Melody
The melodic system in Indian Classical music is based on ragas. According to Pandit Ravi Shankar, a raga is "a scientific, precise, subtle and aesthetic melodic form with its own peculiar ascending and descending movement." The rules associated with each raga include the specific notes that may be played, the time of day that it may be played and the mood that should be aimed for. Many ragas also include specific note combinations and melodic phrasing that distinguish the sound of the piece. This is known as the pakad.
Ragas are constructed using 7 swara (pitches.) This is known as "Sargam" (Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa) which is equivalent to Western solfege (Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do.) Any raga can be written out using this method with sharpened notes accented and flattened notes underlined e.g Má (sharp 4) or Dha (flat 6.) The overtone series gives each of these notes a specific sonic stability against the root note. The order from most to least stable is as follows: Sa (Unison), Pa (5th), Ma (4th), Ga (3rd), Dha (6th), Ri (2nd) Ni (7th.) These tensions between notes are constantly pulling due to the drone which is why the 5th (Pa) takes preference as the secondary drone note. It is the most stable and often leaves the melody to produce the more complex harmonies. All of the 7 swara within Sargam are thought to relate to the sound of an animal. Below are the full names of these 7 swara and their associated sound:
Sa - Sadj - A peacock's cry
Ri - Risbah - A cow's call to her calf
Ga - Gangha - A goat's bleat
Ma - Madyam - A heron's cry
Pa - Pancam - A cuckoo's song
Dha - Dhaivat - A horse's neigh
Ni - Nisad - An elephant's trumpeting
Ragas are based upon a parent scale - a thaat. There are 10 thaats, classified by musicologist Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, which each act as a basis for every raga. These thaats are Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Kalyan, Todi, Poorvi, Marwa and Bhairav. The thaats are also considered ragas themselves but act as the root for all others. The ragas that derive from these thaats are built with a jati (number of unique notes in the scale.) This might be audav (5 notes), shadav (6 notes) or sampoorna (7 notes) depending on the raga. The jati can be completely different aroha or avroha (ascending or descending) and doesn't have to use the same notes on the way up is it does down. For example, the Multani raga is audav whilst ascending and introduces 2 new notes to become sampoorna whilst descending so can be considered "audav-sampoorna". Ragas also use more emphasised notes known as the vadi and samvadi. The vadi is the most emphasised note in a raga and should take preference in improvisation. The samvadi is the second most emphasised note and is therefore more important than the others in the raga except the vadi. Both of these notes help distinguish a particular mood for each raga along with the drone.
Similar to Western music, the melodic element of Indian Classical music is enhanced by ornamentation (Alankaar.) The most common are as follows:
Meend - Similar to glissando in Western ornamentation. Glides between notes.
Khatka - Similar to grace notes or acciaccatura. A single strong, rapid note played before another note.
Zamzama - A complex cluster of grace notes that sounds similar to a trill.
Murki - A group of subtle grace notes. Less forceful than a khatka.
Gamak - Fast, wide vibrato.
Andolan - Slow, wide vibrato.
Some ragas have specific alankaar associated with them.
Common Melodic Instruments:
Voice - Vocalists utilise alankaar as well as other instruments and commonly make up part of a performance
Sitar - This instrument has strings specifically for melody lines and sympathetic strings that resonate along with these melodies.
Bansuri - A woodwind instrument made from bamboo. This instrument can only provide a melody although like any melodic instrument it may still be used to reinforce the drone.
Santoor - A percussive string lap instrument that is played using lightweight hammers.
Improvisation:
Improvisation is an important element of all Indian Classical music. It also plays an extra role in Hindustani song structure. The alap is a slow improvised introduction to a piece and is played to introduce each note of the raga and set the mood. This alap is often enhanced by the jor and the jhala. The jor being an initial introduction to a rhythmic element in the melody and a slight increase in tempo. The jhala being a further increase in tempo that gradually builds in intensity whilst still emphasising the tonal centre of the raga. Similar to a jazz head, a gat is then introduced. This is the written melodic theme of the piece and is played before and after everybody has had a chance at improvisation (including the percussionist.)
Improvisation is not only found within Indian Classical music but also in jazz music. Jazz improvisers tend to follow chord structures and key changes strictly to produce the best sound. This level of musical knowledge and technical precision works well in a lot of cases but to some practitioners of Indian Classical music it may not be seen as true improvisation. With the unchanging drone replacing what would be chords in contemporary Western music, improvisation within Indian Classical music allows an exploration of one tone and the complex harmonies associated with it. These musicians don't need to focus on chord changes, which allows them to explore the capabilities of their instruments in their own way. The improvisational aspect of Indian Classical has influenced jazz musicians. For instance, John Coltrane's study of Indian music with Ravi Shankar led him to explore improvisation more thoroughly, which can be heard on his "Interstellar Space" record. Coltrane's interest in this music was shared amongst other musicians such as John McLaughlin. McLaughlin's acoustic band, Shakti, combined elements of Indian music and jazz.
Western music has evolved with written notation used as a way to teach melodies. Indian Classical music is traditionally taught via oral communication or the use of sargam to explain an idea. This means entire compositions are uncommon compared to other styles of music, allowing for more improvisation.
Along with written melodies, improvisation is used to convey a particular mood. Indian art forms tend to follow the concept of the nava rasa. This means "nine sentiments." Briefly, these are:
Shringara - Romance
Hasya - Humour
Karuna - Sadness
Raudra - Fury
Veera - Heroism
Bhayanaka - Fright
Vibhasta - Repulsion
Abdhuta - Amazement
Shanta - Peace
Although some of these may be difficult to portray in music, the pieces that pull them off successfully tend to be the more expressive to an audience.
Rhythm:
The rhythm players in Indian Classical music tend to follow rhythmic cycles known as Tala. These are repeated patterns of varied numbers of beats that differ from the Western equivalent - the time signature. The rhythmic groupings are usually emphasised although improvisation is still possible. Members of an ensemble may clap out the rhythms in order to maintain time. The first beat (the sam) is emphasised along with each beat of the bar. However empty beats (khali) are also emphasised with a specific hand gesture in order to let the rest of the ensemble know whereabouts they are rhythmically. An example of a Tala is the Keharwa rhythm cycle which is made up of 4 8th notes followed by an 8th note rest and 3 further 8th notes. The first beat can be accented with a clap and the rest (khali) can be emphasised with the hand gesture.
Common Rhythmic Instruments:
Tabla - The most common rhythmic instrument in Hindustani music. Although it is a rhythmic instrument it has a noticeable pitch that can even be tuned to meet the Sa and emphasise the drone. It is designed to be played in a seated position.
Mridangam - Used in Carnatic music. Similar to the tabla it can be tuned to emphasise the drone and is played in a seated position.
Dhol - Unlike the tabla and mridangam, this drum is played with sticks whereas the other two are played using the hands. The dhol drum is hung around the neck so the player may stand. This allows for more movement which means this instrument is commonly seen in processions.
Development of Indian Music
Indian Classical music can be divided into two traditional categories - Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian). India is a spiritual country with people that are devoted to their religion in every day activities. This is the same in their music, hence why many ragas convey spiritual devotion. The improvisation in Indian Classical music may be seen as a spiritual exploration of the soul.
Tanpura demonstration
Melody
The melodic system in Indian Classical music is based on ragas. According to Pandit Ravi Shankar, a raga is "a scientific, precise, subtle and aesthetic melodic form with its own peculiar ascending and descending movement." The rules associated with each raga include the specific notes that may be played, the time of day that it may be played and the mood that should be aimed for. Many ragas also include specific note combinations and melodic phrasing that distinguish the sound of the piece. This is known as the pakad.
Ragas are constructed using 7 swara (pitches.) This is known as "Sargam" (Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa) which is equivalent to Western solfege (Do Re Mi Fa So La Ti Do.) Any raga can be written out using this method with sharpened notes accented and flattened notes underlined e.g Má (sharp 4) or Dha (flat 6.) The overtone series gives each of these notes a specific sonic stability against the root note. The order from most to least stable is as follows: Sa (Unison), Pa (5th), Ma (4th), Ga (3rd), Dha (6th), Ri (2nd) Ni (7th.) These tensions between notes are constantly pulling due to the drone which is why the 5th (Pa) takes preference as the secondary drone note. It is the most stable and often leaves the melody to produce the more complex harmonies. All of the 7 swara within Sargam are thought to relate to the sound of an animal. Below are the full names of these 7 swara and their associated sound:
Sa - Sadj - A peacock's cry
Ri - Risbah - A cow's call to her calf
Ga - Gangha - A goat's bleat
Ma - Madyam - A heron's cry
Pa - Pancam - A cuckoo's song
Dha - Dhaivat - A horse's neigh
Ni - Nisad - An elephant's trumpeting
Ragas are based upon a parent scale - a thaat. There are 10 thaats, classified by musicologist Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, which each act as a basis for every raga. These thaats are Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Kalyan, Todi, Poorvi, Marwa and Bhairav. The thaats are also considered ragas themselves but act as the root for all others. The ragas that derive from these thaats are built with a jati (number of unique notes in the scale.) This might be audav (5 notes), shadav (6 notes) or sampoorna (7 notes) depending on the raga. The jati can be completely different aroha or avroha (ascending or descending) and doesn't have to use the same notes on the way up is it does down. For example, the Multani raga is audav whilst ascending and introduces 2 new notes to become sampoorna whilst descending so can be considered "audav-sampoorna". Ragas also use more emphasised notes known as the vadi and samvadi. The vadi is the most emphasised note in a raga and should take preference in improvisation. The samvadi is the second most emphasised note and is therefore more important than the others in the raga except the vadi. Both of these notes help distinguish a particular mood for each raga along with the drone.
Similar to Western music, the melodic element of Indian Classical music is enhanced by ornamentation (Alankaar.) The most common are as follows:
Meend - Similar to glissando in Western ornamentation. Glides between notes.
Khatka - Similar to grace notes or acciaccatura. A single strong, rapid note played before another note.
Zamzama - A complex cluster of grace notes that sounds similar to a trill.
Murki - A group of subtle grace notes. Less forceful than a khatka.
Gamak - Fast, wide vibrato.
Andolan - Slow, wide vibrato.
Some ragas have specific alankaar associated with them.
Alankaar
Common Melodic Instruments:
Voice - Vocalists utilise alankaar as well as other instruments and commonly make up part of a performance
Sitar - This instrument has strings specifically for melody lines and sympathetic strings that resonate along with these melodies.
Bansuri - A woodwind instrument made from bamboo. This instrument can only provide a melody although like any melodic instrument it may still be used to reinforce the drone.
Santoor - A percussive string lap instrument that is played using lightweight hammers.
Bansuri demonstration
Improvisation:
Improvisation is an important element of all Indian Classical music. It also plays an extra role in Hindustani song structure. The alap is a slow improvised introduction to a piece and is played to introduce each note of the raga and set the mood. This alap is often enhanced by the jor and the jhala. The jor being an initial introduction to a rhythmic element in the melody and a slight increase in tempo. The jhala being a further increase in tempo that gradually builds in intensity whilst still emphasising the tonal centre of the raga. Similar to a jazz head, a gat is then introduced. This is the written melodic theme of the piece and is played before and after everybody has had a chance at improvisation (including the percussionist.)
Improvisation is not only found within Indian Classical music but also in jazz music. Jazz improvisers tend to follow chord structures and key changes strictly to produce the best sound. This level of musical knowledge and technical precision works well in a lot of cases but to some practitioners of Indian Classical music it may not be seen as true improvisation. With the unchanging drone replacing what would be chords in contemporary Western music, improvisation within Indian Classical music allows an exploration of one tone and the complex harmonies associated with it. These musicians don't need to focus on chord changes, which allows them to explore the capabilities of their instruments in their own way. The improvisational aspect of Indian Classical has influenced jazz musicians. For instance, John Coltrane's study of Indian music with Ravi Shankar led him to explore improvisation more thoroughly, which can be heard on his "Interstellar Space" record. Coltrane's interest in this music was shared amongst other musicians such as John McLaughlin. McLaughlin's acoustic band, Shakti, combined elements of Indian music and jazz.
Western music has evolved with written notation used as a way to teach melodies. Indian Classical music is traditionally taught via oral communication or the use of sargam to explain an idea. This means entire compositions are uncommon compared to other styles of music, allowing for more improvisation.
Along with written melodies, improvisation is used to convey a particular mood. Indian art forms tend to follow the concept of the nava rasa. This means "nine sentiments." Briefly, these are:
Shringara - Romance
Hasya - Humour
Karuna - Sadness
Raudra - Fury
Veera - Heroism
Bhayanaka - Fright
Vibhasta - Repulsion
Abdhuta - Amazement
Shanta - Peace
Although some of these may be difficult to portray in music, the pieces that pull them off successfully tend to be the more expressive to an audience.
Rhythm:
The rhythm players in Indian Classical music tend to follow rhythmic cycles known as Tala. These are repeated patterns of varied numbers of beats that differ from the Western equivalent - the time signature. The rhythmic groupings are usually emphasised although improvisation is still possible. Members of an ensemble may clap out the rhythms in order to maintain time. The first beat (the sam) is emphasised along with each beat of the bar. However empty beats (khali) are also emphasised with a specific hand gesture in order to let the rest of the ensemble know whereabouts they are rhythmically. An example of a Tala is the Keharwa rhythm cycle which is made up of 4 8th notes followed by an 8th note rest and 3 further 8th notes. The first beat can be accented with a clap and the rest (khali) can be emphasised with the hand gesture.
Common Rhythmic Instruments:
Tabla - The most common rhythmic instrument in Hindustani music. Although it is a rhythmic instrument it has a noticeable pitch that can even be tuned to meet the Sa and emphasise the drone. It is designed to be played in a seated position.
Mridangam - Used in Carnatic music. Similar to the tabla it can be tuned to emphasise the drone and is played in a seated position.
Dhol - Unlike the tabla and mridangam, this drum is played with sticks whereas the other two are played using the hands. The dhol drum is hung around the neck so the player may stand. This allows for more movement which means this instrument is commonly seen in processions.
Mridangam solo
Development of Indian Music
Indian Classical music can be divided into two traditional categories - Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian). India is a spiritual country with people that are devoted to their religion in every day activities. This is the same in their music, hence why many ragas convey spiritual devotion. The improvisation in Indian Classical music may be seen as a spiritual exploration of the soul.
Indian music has a history of cultural influences and adaptations. For example, the Mughal emperors who ruled India between the 16th and 19th centuries brought many additions and altered existing traditions in Indian culture. They initially invaded from Persia bringing with them an Arabic influence. During this period, the sitar is thought to have been created from an adaption of the veena. The veena is thought to have been adapted to sound more like the Persian seetar, creating the sitar.
During this period, Khayal (meaning "imagination"), was introduced. Khayal is a singing style that evolved from Qawwali music and influenced the popular Hindustani music form that includes an alap, returning melodies and improvisation.
Sufis, practitioners of Sufism, were favoured by Mughal emperors meaning that their beliefs had a strong impact on Indian culture. Sufism involves seeking the Truth through devotion and love and aiming for a path to God. During the Mughal rule, many Sufis were poets and musicians who influenced music by appealing to the emperors' ideas of what music should be.
The Mughal period isn't the only time when Sufi influence on Indian music was strong. Amir Khusrow, A 13th century Sufi musician, poet and scholar is believed to have invented and developed instruments used in Indian Classical music - most notably the tabla. Also believed to be the founder of Qawwali music, Amir Khusrow was an extremely important figure for Indian Classical music.
Indian Classical music has other influences from numerous invasions, including the British invasion. British territories in India saw the introduction of the violin to Indian music, which is still used today. It also brought the harmonium. Traditional Western harmoniums are large organs, whereas harmoniums used in Indian Classical music tend to be smaller.
Western and Eastern music have more recently influenced each other. The sound of Indian Classical music initially influenced Western music because of Ravi Shankar performing to Western audiences and inspiring musicians. However, now the influence filters both ways with Indian popular music embracing Western pop music forms.
The sound of Indian Classical music was introduced to Western audiences by Ravi Shankar. Not only did Shankar perform his own music but he also collaborated and taught Western musicians such as George Harrison and John Coltrane about the intricacies of the musical style. Influences of this can be heard in some of The Beatles' music, such as "Within You Without You" which uses Indian instrumentation.
The Beatles - Within You Without You
Western pop music has had a strong influence on Indian pop music. Western pop music has been brought over to India and Indian pop music has consequently evolved into the same structural format, whilst still keeping the unique elements of Indian vocal ornamentation. Devi Sri Prasad is an Indian pop musician who had been around since the 90s and admits to being influenced by Michael Jackson. A strong bass drum beat in much of his music is one of the features that link it to Western pop music and sets it far apart from Indian Classical music.
Western harmony has also influenced Bollywood, the Indian film industry. Bollywood films tend to be similar to Western musicals in the way that they have storylines fused with music and choreography. Bollywood songs such as "Sooraj Dooba Hain" show clearly the relationship with Western pop music. The strong house beat, the chorus hooklines, the autotuned vocals and the synth backing are all components of contemporary Western club music.
Sooraj Dooba Hain
Bollywood has even influenced British filmmakers such as Danny Boyle. His 2008 film "Slumdog Millionaire" included many of the characteristics of Bollywood films and gained massive success. A. R. Rahman's "Jai Ho" features in the film and was soon after adapted directly into a Western pop song with Nicole Scherzinger's vocals.
A. R. Rahman - Jai Ho (ft. Nicole Scherzinger)
Technological advancements have influenced how Indian Classical music is played. Instruments such as the electronic srutibox or electronic tanpura are being used to replicate the original instruments which allows musicians to choose between the two. Carnatic musicians tend to replace these instruments with their electronic equivalents whilst performing whereas Hindustani musicians tend to only use them whilst teaching. IPhone apps such as "iTanpura" or "iTabla" or even Youtube videos replicating drones or rhythm cycles now allow people to practise or even perform with less members in an ensemble.
Sources
http://www.ravishankar.org/reflections
http://sessionville.com/articles/the-influence-of-indian-music-on-jazz
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Mughal_Empire
http://www.nimatullahi.org/what-is-sufism/sufism-defined/
http://www.sufiwiki.com/Amir_Khusro
http://indiamusicweek.org/files/coltrane.pdf
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